Benchmarks
L3 evaluation suites for computational imaging — public test sets, hidden challenge tiers, and on-chain leaderboards. Physics World Model provides 169 imaging systems across 22 domains.
169
Imaging Systems
22
Domains
Public
+ Hidden tiers
4
Trust tiers
Compressive
5 imaging systemsCASSI
Coded Aperture Snapshot Spectral Imaging
M(mask) → W(α, a) → Σ_λ → D(g, η₄)
Top results
CACTI
Coded Aperture Compressive Temporal Imaging
M(m_t) → Σ_t → D(g, η₄)
Top results
SPC-Block
Single-Pixel Camera (Block Sensing)
S(block) → M(Φ) → Σ → D(g, η₁)
Top results
SPC-Kronecker
Single-Pixel Camera (Kronecker Sensing)
M(H⊗W) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Matrix
Generic Matrix Sensing
M(Φ) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Medical
34 imaging systemsCT
X-ray Computed Tomography
R(θ) → Π(fan) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
CBCT
Cone-Beam Computed Tomography
R(θ) → Π(cone) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
PET
Positron Emission Tomography
Π(LOR) → Σ_t → D(g, η₃)
Top results
SPECT
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
Π(parallel) → Σ_E → D(g, η₃)
Top results
X-ray Radiography
X-ray Radiography
Π(proj) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Mammography
Mammography
Π(contact) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Fluoroscopy
Fluoroscopy
Π(proj) → Σ_t → D(g, η₁)
Top results
X-ray Angiography
X-ray Angiography
Π(proj) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
DEXA
Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry
Λ(E₁,E₂) → Π(proj) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
DOT
Diffuse Optical Tomography
P(diffuse) → Σ → D(g, η₃)
Top results
Photoacoustic
Photoacoustic Imaging
P(acoustic) → Σ_t → D(g, η₂)
Top results
MRI
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
F(k-traj) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
fMRI
Functional MRI (BOLD)
F(EPI) → Σ_t → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Diffusion MRI
Diffusion MRI (DTI)
F(EPI) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
MRS
MR Spectroscopy
F(FID) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
PET/CT
Positron Emission Tomography / Computed Tomography
R(θ) → D(μ_ct) → Π(LOR) → D(g, η)
Top results
PET/MR
Positron Emission Tomography / Magnetic Resonance
F(k) → S(coil) → D(μ_mr) → R(θ) → D(g, η)
Top results
SPECT/CT
Single Photon Emission CT / Computed Tomography
R(θ) → D(μ_ct) → H(coll) → D(g, η)
Top results
Spectral CT
Dual-Energy / Spectral Computed Tomography
R(θ) → A(E_low, E_high) → Σ_mat → D(g, η)
Top results
Industrial CT
Industrial Computed Tomography
R(θ) → B(poly) → S(scatter) → D(g, η)
Top results
Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) MRI
Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL) MRI
M → F → S → D
Top results
Brachytherapy Imaging
Brachytherapy Imaging
Π → D
Top results
CEST MRI
CEST MRI
M → F → S → D
Top results
Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS)
Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound (CEUS)
P → R → D
Top results
Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy (CLE)
Confocal Laser Endomicroscopy (CLE)
M → C → D
Top results
Digital Breast Tomosynthesis (DBT)
Digital Breast Tomosynthesis (DBT)
Π → D
Top results
Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS)
Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS)
P → D
Top results
MR Elastography (MRE)
MR Elastography (MRE)
M → F → S → D
Top results
MR Fingerprinting (MRF)
MR Fingerprinting (MRF)
M → F → S → D
Top results
MR Angiography (MRA)
MR Angiography (MRA)
M → F → S → D
Top results
Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)
Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)
M → R → P → D
Top results
Portal Imaging (EPID)
Portal Imaging (EPID)
Π → D
Top results
Proton Therapy Imaging
Proton Therapy Imaging
Π → D
Top results
Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging (SWI)
Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging (SWI)
M → F → S → D
Top results
Medical Ultrasound
3 imaging systemsUltrasound
Ultrasound Imaging
P(acoustic) → Σ_t → D(g, η₂)
Top results
Doppler Ultrasound
Doppler Ultrasound
P(acoustic) → Σ_t → D(g, η₂)
Top results
Elastography
Shear-Wave Elastography
P(shear) → Σ_t → D(g, η₂)
Top results
Coherent
5 imaging systemsHolography
Digital Holographic Microscopy
P(Fresnel) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Ptychography
Ptychographic Imaging
P(probe) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
CDI
Coherent Diffractive Imaging
P(far-field) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Optical Diffraction Tomography (ODT)
Optical Diffraction Tomography (ODT)
P → D
Top results
Talbot-Lau X-ray Grating Interferometry
Talbot-Lau X-ray Grating Interferometry
M → P → D
Top results
Microscopy
24 imaging systemsWidefield
Widefield Fluorescence Microscopy
C(PSF) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
Widefield Low-Dose
Low-Dose Widefield Microscopy
C(PSF) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
Confocal Live-Cell
Confocal Live-Cell Microscopy
C(PSF_confocal) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
Confocal 3D
Confocal 3D Z-Stack
C(PSF_3D) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
Light-Sheet
Light-Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy
C(PSF_sheet) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
Two-Photon
Two-Photon / Multiphoton Microscopy
C(PSF_2P) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
STED
STED Microscopy
C(PSF_STED) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
TIRF
TIRF Microscopy
C(PSF_TIRF) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
SIM
Structured Illumination Microscopy
S(grating) → C(PSF) → Σ_φ → D(g, η₃)
Top results
FPM
Fourier Ptychographic Microscopy
S(LED array) → C(PSF_NA) → Σ_θ → D(g, η₁)
Top results
FLIM
Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging
C(PSF) → Σ_t → D(g, η₃)
Top results
PALM/STORM
PALM/STORM Single-Molecule Localization
C(PSF) → D(g, η₃)
Top results
Polarization
Polarization Microscopy
M(polarizer) → C(PSF) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Dark-Field Microscopy
Dark-Field Microscopy
C → D
Top results
Differential Interference Contrast (DIC)
Differential Interference Contrast (DIC)
M → C → D
Top results
DNA-PAINT Super-Resolution
DNA-PAINT Super-Resolution
M → D
Top results
Expansion Microscopy (ExM)
Expansion Microscopy (ExM)
C → D
Top results
Image Scanning Microscopy (ISM)
Image Scanning Microscopy (ISM)
C → D
Top results
Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy
Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy
C → D
Top results
MINFLUX Nanoscopy
MINFLUX Nanoscopy
C → D
Top results
Phase Contrast Microscopy
Phase Contrast Microscopy
C → D
Top results
Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) Microscopy
Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) Microscopy
M → R → D
Top results
Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopy
Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopy
C → D
Top results
Three-Photon Microscopy
Three-Photon Microscopy
C → D
Top results
Electron Microscopy
11 imaging systemsSEM
Scanning Electron Microscopy
P(e⁻ beam) → C(probe) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
TEM
Transmission Electron Microscopy
P(e⁻) → C(CTF) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
STEM
Scanning TEM
P(e⁻) → C(probe) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Electron Tomo
Electron Tomography
R(θ) → P(e⁻) → Π(proj) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
4D-STEM
4D-STEM Electron Diffraction
P(e⁻) → F(diffraction) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Electron Holography
Electron Holography
P(e⁻) → Σ(interference) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
EBSD
Electron Backscatter Diffraction
P(e⁻) → Π(backscatter) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
EELS
Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
P(e⁻) → Λ(energy) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Cryo-Electron Tomography (Cryo-ET)
Cryo-Electron Tomography (Cryo-ET)
Π → D
Top results
STEM-EDX Elemental Mapping
STEM-EDX Elemental Mapping
M → R → D
Top results
Focused Ion Beam SEM (FIB-SEM)
Focused Ion Beam SEM (FIB-SEM)
S → C → D
Top results
Clinical Optics
4 imaging systemsFundus
Fundus Camera
C(PSF_optic) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
OCT
Optical Coherence Tomography
P(low-coherence) → Σ(interference) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
OCTA
OCT Angiography
P(low-coherence) → Σ(interference) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Endoscopy
Fiber Bundle Endoscopy
C(PSF_fiber) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Computational
2 imaging systemsLight Field
Light Field Imaging
Π(micro-lens) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Integral
Integral Photography
Π(lens-array) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Computational Photography
5 imaging systemsLensless
Lensless (Diffuser Camera) Imaging
P(diffuser) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Panorama
Panorama Multi-Focus Fusion
C(PSF_focus) → Σ_f → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Coded Exposure / Flutter Shutter
Coded Exposure / Flutter Shutter
M → C → D
Top results
Event Camera / Dynamic Vision Sensor (DVS)
Event Camera / Dynamic Vision Sensor (DVS)
M → D
Top results
High Dynamic Range (HDR) Imaging
High Dynamic Range (HDR) Imaging
M → Σ → D
Top results
Neural Rendering
2 imaging systemsNeRF
Neural Radiance Fields
Π(ray) → Σ(volume) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
3DGS
3D Gaussian Splatting
Π(splat) → Σ(alpha) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Depth Imaging
5 imaging systemsToF Camera
Time-of-Flight Depth Camera
P(modulated) → Σ(correlation) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Structured Light
Structured-Light Depth Camera
S(pattern) → Π(triangulation) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
LiDAR
LiDAR Scanner
P(pulsed) → Σ(return) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Flash LiDAR
Flash LiDAR
P → D
Top results
Photometric Stereo
Photometric Stereo
M → C → D
Top results
Remote Sensing
11 imaging systemsSAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar
F(azimuth×range) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Sonar
Sonar Imaging
P(acoustic) → Σ_t → D(g, η₂)
Top results
Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR)
P → D
Top results
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
M → W → Σ → D
Top results
Interferometric SAR (InSAR)
Interferometric SAR (InSAR)
F → S → D
Top results
Multispectral Satellite Imaging
Multispectral Satellite Imaging
M → Σ → D
Top results
Ocean Color Remote Sensing
Ocean Color Remote Sensing
M → Σ → D
Top results
Passive Microwave Radiometry
Passive Microwave Radiometry
Σ → D
Top results
Polarimetric SAR (PolSAR)
Polarimetric SAR (PolSAR)
F → M → D
Top results
Radio Interferometry (VLBI)
Radio Interferometry (VLBI)
F → S → D
Top results
Weather / Doppler Radar
Weather / Doppler Radar
P → R → D
Top results
Particle Imaging
3 imaging systemsNeutron Tomo
Neutron Radiography / Tomography
R(θ) → Π(neutron) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Proton Radiography
Proton Radiography
Π(proton) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Muon Tomo
Muon Tomography
R(θ_cosmic) → Π(muon) → D(g, η₁)
Top results
Scanning Probe
4 imaging systemsAtomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
S → D
Top results
Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM)
Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM)
S → M → D
Top results
Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM)
Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM)
M → C → D
Top results
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
S → D
Top results
Industrial Inspection
9 imaging systemsScanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)
Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM)
P → D
Top results
Active Thermography (IR)
Active Thermography (IR)
P → D
Top results
Eddy Current Imaging
Eddy Current Imaging
F → D
Top results
Machine Vision / AOI
Machine Vision / AOI
C → D
Top results
Shearography
Shearography
M → P → D
Top results
Terahertz Imaging (THz)
Terahertz Imaging (THz)
P → D
Top results
Ultrasonic Phased Array (TFM/FMC)
Ultrasonic Phased Array (TFM/FMC)
P → D
Top results
X-ray NDT (Radiography)
X-ray NDT (Radiography)
Π → D
Top results
X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Imaging
X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Imaging
M → R → D
Top results
Spectroscopy
8 imaging systemsBrillouin Microscopy
Brillouin Microscopy
M → R → D
Top results
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman (CARS) Microscopy
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman (CARS) Microscopy
M → R → D
Top results
DESI Mass Spectrometry Imaging
DESI Mass Spectrometry Imaging
S → D
Top results
FTIR Spectroscopic Imaging
FTIR Spectroscopic Imaging
M → Σ → D
Top results
Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) Imaging
Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) Imaging
M → R → D
Top results
Raman Imaging / Microscopy
Raman Imaging / Microscopy
M → R → D
Top results
Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) Imaging
Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) Imaging
S → D
Top results
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) Microscopy
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) Microscopy
M → R → D
Top results
Astronomy
4 imaging systemsStellar Coronagraphy
Stellar Coronagraphy
M → P → D
Top results
Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) Imaging
Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) Imaging
F → S → D
Top results
Lucky Imaging
Lucky Imaging
M → C → D
Top results
Solar EUV/X-ray Imaging
Solar EUV/X-ray Imaging
M → P → D
Top results
Ultrafast
4 imaging systemsCompressed Ultrafast Photography (CUP)
Compressed Ultrafast Photography (CUP)
M → Σ → D
Top results
Pump-Probe Microscopy
Pump-Probe Microscopy
M → R → D
Top results
Streak Camera Imaging
Streak Camera Imaging
M → Σ → D
Top results
XFEL Serial Femtosecond Crystallography (SFX)
XFEL Serial Femtosecond Crystallography (SFX)
M → R → D
Top results
Quantum
3 imaging systemsEntangled Photon Microscopy
Entangled Photon Microscopy
M → R → D
Top results
Ghost Imaging
Ghost Imaging
M → Σ → D
Top results
Quantum Illumination
Quantum Illumination
M → R → D
Top results
Experimental Science
11 imaging systemsAcoustic Emission Testing (AE)
Acoustic Emission Testing (AE)
P → S → D
Top results
Adaptive Optics (AO) Imaging
Adaptive Optics (AO) Imaging
M → C → D
Top results
Bioluminescence Tomography (BLT)
Bioluminescence Tomography (BLT)
Src → R → P → D
Top results
Full-Waveform Inversion (FWI)
Full-Waveform Inversion (FWI)
P → D
Top results
Gravitational Wave Detection
Gravitational Wave Detection
P → Σ → D
Top results
Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT)
Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT)
M → D
Top results
Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI)
Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI)
M → F → D
Top results
Ocean Acoustic Tomography
Ocean Acoustic Tomography
P → D
Top results
Particle Calorimetry
Particle Calorimetry
R → Σ → D
Top results
Radio Aperture Synthesis
Radio Aperture Synthesis
F → S → D
Top results
Seismic Tomography
Seismic Tomography
P → D
Top results
Scientific Instrumentation
9 imaging systemsAtom Probe Tomography (APT)
Atom Probe Tomography (APT)
S → D
Top results
Cathodoluminescence (CL) Imaging
Cathodoluminescence (CL) Imaging
M → R → D
Top results
Cryo-EM Single Particle Analysis
Cryo-EM Single Particle Analysis
C → D
Top results
MALDI Mass Spectrometry Imaging
MALDI Mass Spectrometry Imaging
S → D
Top results
Neutron Diffraction
Neutron Diffraction
R → S → D
Top results
Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS)
Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS)
R → D
Top results
Wide-Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS)
Wide-Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS)
R → D
Top results
X-ray Crystallography
X-ray Crystallography
F → S → D
Top results
X-ray Fluorescence Tomography
X-ray Fluorescence Tomography
Π → R → D
Top results
Multi-Modal Fusion
3 imaging systemsCorrelative Light-Electron Microscopy (CLEM)
Correlative Light-Electron Microscopy (CLEM)
(C → D) + (C → D) → ⊕
Top results
CT + Fluorescence (FLIT)
CT + Fluorescence (FLIT)
(Π → D) + (M → R → P → D) → ⊕
Top results
US/MRI Fusion
US/MRI Fusion
(P → D) + (M → F → S → D) → ⊕
Top results